Somatic mutations in the PTEN (Phosphatase and Tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) gene are known to cause tumors in a variety of human tissues. In addition, germline mutations in PTEN are the cause of human diseases (Cowden disease and Bannayan-Zonana syndrome) associated with increased risk of breast and thyroid cancer (Nelen M R et al. (1997) Hum Mol Genet, 8:1383-1387; Liaw D et al. (1997) Nat Genet, 1:64-67; Marsh D J et al. (1998) Hum Mol Genet, 3:507-515). PTEN is thought to act as a tumor suppressor by regulating several signaling pathways through the second messenger phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5 triphosphate (PIP3). PTEN dephosphorylates the D3 position of PIP3 and downregulates signaling events dependent on PIP3 levels (Maehama T and Dixon J E (1998) J Biol Chem, 22, 13375-8). In particular, pro-survival pathways downstream of the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway are regulated by PTEN activity. Stimulation of the IGF pathway, or loss of PTEN function, elevates PIP3 levels and activates pro-survival pathways associated with tumorigenesis (Stambolic V et al. (1998) Cell, 95:29-39). Consistent with this model, elevated levels of insulin-like growth factors I and II correlate with increased risk of cancer (Yu H et al (1999) J Natl Cancer Inst 91:151-156) and poor prognosis (Takanami I et al, 1996, J Surg Oncol 61(3):205-8).
PTEN sequence is conserved in evolution, and exists in mouse (Hansen GM and Justice M J (1998) Mamm Genome, 9(1):88-90), Drosophila (Goberdhan D C et al (1999) Genes and Dev, 24:3244-58; Huang H et al (1999) Development 23:5365-72), and C. elegans (Ogg S and Ruvkun G, (1998) Mol Cell, (6):887-93). Studies in these model organisms have helped to elucidate the role of PTEN in processes relevant to tumorigenesis. In Drosophila, the PTEN homolog (dPTEN) has been shown to regulate cell size, survival, and proliferation (Huang et al, supra; Goberdhan et al, supra; Gao X et al, 2000, 221:404-418). In mice, loss of PTEN function increases cancer susceptibility (Di Cristofano A et al (1998) Nature Genetics, 19:348-355; Suzuki A et al (1998) Curr. Biol., 8:1169-78).
In addition, a member of the IGF/insulin receptor family exists in Drosophila and has been shown to respond to insulin stimulation (Fernandez-Almonacid R, and Rozen O M (1987) Mol Cell Bio, (8):2718-27). Similar to PTEN, studies in Drosophila (Brogiolo W et al (2001) Curr Biol, 11(4):213-21) and mouse (Moorehead R A et al (2003) Oncogene, 22(6):853-857) establish a conserved role for the IGF/insulin pathway in growth control.
Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (ALDO) is a glycolytic enzyme that catalyzes the reversible conversion of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The enzyme is a tetramer of identical 40,000-dalton subunits. Vertebrates have 3 aldolase isozymes which are distinguished by their electrophoretic and catalytic properties. The amino acid sequence of the aldolases around the active site lysine is greatly conserved in evolution. Differences indicate that aldolases A (ALDOA), B (ALDOB), and C (ALDOC) are distinct proteins, the products of a family of related genes. Study of the genes is of interest because expression of the isozymes is regulated during development and because they represent the poorly characterized class of ‘housekeeping genes’ which are expressed in all cells. The developing embryo produces ALDOA, which is produced in even greater amounts in adult muscle where it can be as much as 5% of total cellular protein. In adult liver, kidney and intestine, ALDOA expression is repressed and ALDOB is produced. In brain and other nervous tissue, ALDOA and ALDOC are expressed about equally. In transformed liver cells, ALDOA replaces ALDOB.
The ability to manipulate the genomes of model organisms such as Drosophila provides a powerful means to analyze biochemical processes that, due to significant evolutionary conservation, have direct relevance to more complex vertebrate organisms. Due to a high level of gene and pathway conservation, the strong similarity of cellular processes, and the functional conservation of genes between these model organisms and mammals, identification of the involvement of novel genes in particular pathways and their functions in such model organisms can directly contribute to the understanding of the correlative pathways and methods of modulating them in mammals (see, for example, Mechler B M et al., 1985 EMBO J 4:1551-1557; Gateff E. 1982 Adv. Cancer Res. 37: 33-74; Watson K L., et al., 1994 J Cell Sci. 18: 19-33; Miklos G L, and Rubin G M. 1996 Cell 86:521-529; Wassarman D A, et al., 1995 Curr Opin Gen Dev 5: 44-50; and Booth D R. 1999 Cancer Metastasis Rev. 18: 261-284). For example, a genetic screen can be carried out in an invertebrate model organism or cell having underexpression (e.g. knockout) or overexpression of a gene (referred to as a “genetic entry point”) that yields a visible phenotype, such as altered cell growth. Additional genes are mutated in a random or targeted manner. When a gene mutation changes the original phenotype caused by the mutation in the genetic entry point, the gene is identified as a “modifier” involved in the same or overlapping pathway as the genetic entry point. When inactivation of either gene is not lethal, but inactivation of both genes results in reduced viability or death of the cell, tissue, or organism, the interaction is defined as “synthetic lethal” (Bender, A and Pringle J, (1991) Mol Cell Biol, 11:1295-1305; Hartman J et al, (2001) Science 291:1001-1004; U.S. Pat. No. 6,489,127). In a synthetic lethal interaction, the modifier may also be identified as an “interactor”. When the genetic entry point is an ortholog of a human gene implicated in a disease pathway, such as the IGF pathway, modifier genes can be identified that may be attractive candidate targets for novel therapeutics.
All references cited herein, including patents, patent applications, publications, and sequence information in referenced Genbank identifier numbers, are incorporated herein in their entireties.